Question

Question 3 Instructions: Please respond to the following in essay format with full paragraphs and complete sentences; no bullet points or fragments. Spelling and proper grammar counts. Topic: Select and identify two(2) psychological disorders. Describe their classification, primary features, and symptoms. Using one of the models of abnormality identify the possible origin/causes of these disorders. What are potentially viable treatments for these disorders?

Answer 1

• Depression
• Depression is a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest. Also called major depressive disorder or clinical depression, it affects how you feel, think and behave and can lead to a variety of emotional and physical problems. You may have trouble doing normal day-to-day activities, and sometimes you may feel as if life isn't worth living
• Symptoms:-
• Although depression may occur only once during your life, people typically have multiple episodes. During these episodes, symptoms occur most of the day, nearly every day and may include:
• Feelings of sadness, tearfulness, emptiness or hopelessness
• Angry outbursts, irritability or frustration, even over small matters
• Loss of interest or pleasure in most or all normal activities, such as sex, hobbies or sports
• Sleep disturbances, including insomnia or sleeping too much
• Tiredness and lack of energy, so even small tasks take extra effort
• Reduced appetite and weight loss or increased cravings for food and weight gain
• Anxiety, agitation or restlessness
• Slowed thinking, speaking or body movements
• Feelings of worthlessness or guilt, fixating on past failures or self-blame
• Trouble thinking, concentrating, making decisions and remembering things
• Frequent or recurrent thoughts of death, suicidal thoughts, suicide attempts or suicide
• Unexplained physical problems, such as back pain or headaches
• The biopsychosocial model encourages clinicians to explain phenomena such as depression by examining all relevant biological, psychological, and social factors that might be contributing to the development or maintenance of the disorder.
• With regard to biological factors, it is known that depressed individuals are often significantly disturbed with regard to endocrine (hormone), immune, and neurotransmitter system functioning. In addition, depression can make a person more vulnerable to developing a range of physical disorders.
• Similarly, a person who has a physical disorder is often more likely to develop depression. Research also suggest that genes can influence transmission of depression from generation to generation.
• Psychological factors influencing depression include characteristic negative patterns of thinking, deficits in coping skills, judgment problems, and impaired emotional intelligence (the ability to perceive, understand, and express emotions) that depressed people tend to exhibit.
• To some degree, these psychological factors can be influenced by biology (e.g, people's innate temperament, or their biologically-based personality characteristics, can influence people to be more or less likely to act in ways characteristic of depression), and by social factors such as what coping behaviors are modeled for people (e.g., by their parents and teachers) as they are growing up.
• People can also become depressed as a result of social factors such as: experiencing traumatic situations, early separation, lack of social support, or harassment (bullying). Research has shown that stressful social events are capable of serving as triggers for turning genes on and off, causing changes in brain functioning. Via this path, a social stressor can trigger a physical cause of depression.
• Treatment and Therapies
• Medications and psychotherapy are effective for most people with depression.
• Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Doctors often start by prescribing an SSRI. These drugs are considered safer and generally cause fewer bothersome side effects than other types of antidepressants. SSRIs include citalopram (Celexa), escitalopram (Lexapro), fluoxetine (Prozac), paroxetine (Paxil, Pexeva), sertraline (Zoloft) and vilazodone (Viibryd).
• Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). Examples of SNRIs include duloxetine (Cymbalta), venlafaxine (Effexor XR), desvenlafaxine (Pristiq, Khedezla) and levomilnacipran (Fetzima).
• Atypical antidepressants. These medications don't fit neatly into any of the other antidepressant categories. They include bupropion (Wellbutrin XL, Wellbutrin SR, Aplenzin, Forfivo XL), mirtazapine (Remeron), nefazodone, trazodone and vortioxetine (Trintellix).
• Different types of psychotherapy can be effective for depression, such as cognitive behavioral therapy or interpersonal therapy.
• Psychotherapy can help the person:-
• Adjust to a crisis or other current difficulty
• Identify negative beliefs and behaviors and replace them with healthy, positive ones
• Explore relationships and experiences, and develop positive interactions with others
• Find better ways to cope and solve problems
• Identify issues that contribute to your depression and change behaviors that make it worse
• Regain a sense of satisfaction and control in your life and help ease depression symptoms, such as hopelessness and anger
• Obsessive compulsive disorder
• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a common, chronic and long-lasting disorder in which a person has uncontrollable, reoccurring thoughts (obsessions) and behaviors (compulsions) that he or she feels the urge to repeat over and over.
• People with OCD may have symptoms of obsessions, compulsions, or both. These symptoms can interfere with all aspects of life, such as work, school, and personal relationships.
• Obsessions are repeated thoughts, urges, or mental images that cause anxiety. Common symptoms include:
• Fear of germs or contamination
• Unwanted forbidden or taboo thoughts involving sex, religion, and harm
• Aggressive thoughts towards others or self
• Having things symmetrical or in a perfect order
• Compulsions are repetitive behaviors that a person with OCD feels the urge to do in response to an obsessive thought. Common compulsions include:
• Excessive cleaning and/or handwashing
• Ordering and arranging things in a particular, precise way
• Repeatedly checking on things, such as repeatedly checking to see if the door is locked or that the oven is off
• Compulsive counting
• A person with OCD generally:
• Can't control his or her thoughts or behaviors, even when those thoughts or behaviors are recognized as excessive
• Spends at least 1 hour a day on these thoughts or behaviors
• Doesn’t get pleasure when performing the behaviors or rituals, but may feel brief relief from the anxiety the thoughts cause
• Experiences significant problems in their daily life due to these thoughts or behaviors
• Symptoms may come and go, ease over time, or worsen. People with OCD may try to help themselves by avoiding situations that trigger their obsessions, or they may use alcohol or drugs to calm themselves. Although most adults with OCD recognize that what they are doing doesn’t make sense, some adults and most children may not realize that their behavior is out of the ordinary.
• The diathesis stress model of OCD-
• The diathesis-stress model of abnormality says that people are born with a vulnerability to a certain mental illness, and life stressors influence whether they will end up getting that disease or not.For example,If someone has obsessive compulsive disorder, or OCD. She can't stop thinking about germs, and it makes her really anxious that there are germs everywhere. Sometimes, she even gets panic attacks just thinking about how she's surrounded by germs.
• To try to make herself calmer and get rid of her anxiety, the patient cleans all the time. She scrubs her house from ceiling to floor, trying to eliminate all the germs she can. Then, she scrubs her own skin raw in order to become clean. But, it's never enough.
• According to this model, perhaps she inherited a gene that makes her more likely to develop OCD than the average person. With just this gene, she might never develop the disorder. But, if she experiences stress, like having a chaotic childhood, that stress plus her vulnerability could lead to her developing the disorder.
• Genes that have been studied in relation to OCD include those associated with the action of serotonin, which is a neurotransmitter believed to have a role in regulating mood.
• Some of these genes are involved in regulating the serotonin system development.E.g gene 5HT1-D beta is implicated in transport efficiency of serotonin across synapses.
• Treatments and Therapies
• OCD is typically treated with medication, psychotherapy or a combination of the two. Although most patients with OCD respond to treatment, some patients continue to experience symptoms.
• Serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRIs) and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are used to help reduce OCD symptoms. Examples of medications that have been proven effective in both adults and children with OCD include clomipramine, which is a member of an older class of “tricyclic” antidepressants, and several newer “selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors” (SSRIs), including:
• fluoxetine
• fluvoxamine
• sertraline
• Psychotherapy can be an effective treatment for adults and children with OCD. Research shows that certain types of psychotherapy, including cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) and other related therapies (e.g., habit reversal training) can be as effective as medication for many individuals. Research also shows that a type of CBT called Exposure and Response Prevention (EX/RP) is effective in reducing compulsive behaviors in OCD, even in people who did not respond well to SRI medication.