Question

• Find and post examples of deductive and inductive arguments.
• For each example, evaluate its logical strength, using the concepts and ideas presented in the textbook readings, the lesson, and any other source you find that helps you to evaluate the validity (deductive) or strength (inductive) of the argument. You can use examples from the text, or you can find examples elsewhere.
  • Editorials and opinion columns are a good source, as are letters to the editor. Blogs will also often be based on arguments.
  • Use mapping and evaluative techniques to make sure it is an argument.
• Is it inductive or deductive? Explain why.
• Does it pass the tests of validity and strength? Explain.

Answer 1

A deductive argument is an argument that is intended by the arguer to be deductively valid, that is, to provide a guarantee of the truth of the conclusion provided that the argument’s premises are true. This point can be expressed also by saying that, in a deductive argument, the premises are intended to provide such strong support for the conclusion that, if the premises are true, then it would be impossible for the conclusion to be false. All arguments are either valid or invalid, and either sound or unsound; there is no middle ground, such as being somewhat valid.

Here is a valid deductive argument: It’s sunny in Singapore. If it’s sunny in Singapore, then he won’t be carrying an umbrella. So, he won’t be carrying an umbrella. The conclusion follows the word “So”. The two premises of this argument would, if true, guarantee the truth of the conclusion. However, we have been given no information that would enable us to decide whether the two premises are both true, so we cannot assess whether the argument is deductively sound. It is one or the other, but we do not know which. If it turns out that the argument has a false premise and so is unsound, this won’t change the fact that it is valid.

An inductive argument is an argument that is intended by the arguer to be strong enough that, if the premises were to be true, then it would be unlikely that the conclusion is false. So, an inductive argument’s success or strength is a matter of degree, unlike with deductive arguments.

Here is a mildly strong inductive argument: Every time I’ve walked by that dog, it hasn’t tried to bite me. So, the next time I walk by that dog it won’t try to bite me. Here there is no standard term for a successful inductive argument, but this article uses the term “strong.” Inductive arguments that are not strong are said to be weak; there is no sharp line between strong and weak. The argument about the dog biting me would be stronger if we couldn’t think of any relevant conditions for why the next time will be different than previous times. The argument also will be stronger the more times there were when I did walk by the dog. The argument will be weaker the fewer times I have walked by the dog. It will be weaker if relevant conditions about the past time will be different next time, such as that in the past the dog has been behind a closed gate, but next time the gate will be open.

An editorial is an expression of the position of the newspaper's editors or editorial board or publisher on an issue. It's generally written by an editor or member of the editorial board. The tradition has been to frame the editorial using first person plural, we. Editorials are not generally signed although there have been some exceptions over the years.

A column is written by a columnist, editor or other select individual on a topic of their choosing. It is the expression of one person's opinion or viewpoint and is generally written using first person singular or third person singular. Columns are signed by the author.

An article is nonfictional writing within a publication. Articles can be further divided into news writing, feature writing, sports writing, and opinion writing. Editorials and columns fall under the heading of opinion writing. News and feature articles are generally presented as objective forms. Sports writing is supposed to be objective, but it isn't completely without bias, thus the separate category. Articles can be further divided into the various sections of the newspaper: business, lifestyle, transportation, housing, etc. Articles may or may not be signed depending on the policy of the publication and are generally written in third person.

A concept map shows how different ideas relate to each other - sometimes this is called a mind map or a cluster map. This option can be used for the task of negotiating values and standards, and is useful for framing the evaluation. Concept Mapping can be used before, during or after implementation of a project/program/policy

On the other hand in evaluation, it is particularly useful in making explicit the different values people have about a particular topic or project/programme. If used a few times in the life of a project,    programme or strategy it would identify the overall changing values stakeholders have as peoples’ knowledge and understanding of an intervention changes.

If an argument is weak, you’d be better off throwing a coin to know if the conclusion is true, and that’s far from succeeding in providing reasons for a conclusion. So if the conclusion is unlikely to be true when the premises are true, then the argument is weak. On concluding this topic we have to consider the following points:

• It will usually be best to use several methods of formative evaluation to provide a composite impression of the learning, teaching and assessment;

• Methods should be chosen to provide the type of information that the evaluation requires

• Other factors, such as the way the information will be used, and by whom, are also of importance in the choice of method( s)

• It is desirable to give some thought to the values against which judgements will be made from evaluations

• Not all evaluations call for separate activity to generate data; some may use data that are already available, such as portfolios, learning journals and examination scripts.