Question

In a single two to three page document complete the following: A. Locate a full text article describing an application of either the Health Belief Model or the Transtheoretical Model. Provide a brief description of the theory application, a description of the issues surrounding the need for application of the theory, the benefits of applying this theory for the selected population/area, and the functional adequacy of this application for the identified problem (did this theory application help solve a problem or not). Additionally, provide two suggestions for improvement in the application of this theory, including why the suggestions/changes would be helpful (75%).

Answer 1

Health Belief Model is a theoretical model which can be used to guide programs related to disease prevention and also to explain and predict health-related behaviors.

Applications of Health Belief Model:

1. The health belief model has been used to develop effective interventions to change health-related behaviors
2. Increase perceived susceptibility to and perceived seriousness of a health condition by providing education about prevalence and incidence of disease, individualized estimates of risk, and information about the consequences of disease (e.g., medical, financial, and social consequences).
3. Alter the cost-benefit analysis of engaging in a health-promoting behavior (i.e., increasing perceived benefits and decreasing perceived barriers) by providing information about the efficacy of various behaviors to reduce risk of disease, identifying common perceived barriers, providing incentives to engage in health-promoting behaviors, and engaging social support or other resources to encourage health-promoting behaviors.
4. Provide cues to action to remind and encourage individuals to engage in health-promoting behaviors
5. Boost self-efficacy by providing training in specific health-promoting behaviors,particularly for complex lifestyle changes (e.g., changing diet or physical activity, adhering to a complicated medication regimen).
6. Engagement at individual level (i.e., working one-on-one with individuals to increase engagement in health-related behaviors) or the societal level (e.g., through legislation, changes to the physical environment.

Health Belief Model is generally based on six basic concepts which are summarised below:

1. Perceived Susceptibility: It refers to one's belief of the chances of getting a condition or subjective assessment of risk of developing a health problem.

Applications:

1. Population at risk and their risk levels was defined. Low, average and high risk population for colorectal cancer was described.
2. Personalized risk based on each person's behaviours and conditions e.g. their age and other personal habits such as eating habits were explored.
3. It provides statistic about colorectal cancer like its prevalence and mortality rate
4. It describes necessity of conducting screening tests to evaluate clinical sign and symptom about disease and also in the absence of any clinical sign or symptoms i. e. importance of screening in health monitoring is necessary.

2. Perceived Severity: It refers to one's belief of how serious a condition and its consequences are and how to reduce risk or seriousness of such impact. It encompasses beliefs about the disease itself (e.g., whether it is life-threatening or may cause disability or pain) as well as broader impacts of the disease on functioning in work and social roles

Applications:

1. It also helpful to find out the how serious is the condition and how it will make impacts of the disease on functioning in work and social roles. For example, an individual may perceive that influenza is not medically serious, but if he or she perceives that there would be serious financial consequences as a result of being absent from work for several days, then he or she may perceive influenza to be a particularly serious condition
2. It is helpful to decide how, where, when and what action to take if someone is associated with serious disease condition.

3. Perceived Benefits: It refer to an assessment of the value or efficacy of engaging in a health-promoting behavior to decrease risk of disease i.e. one’s belief in the efficacy of the advised action to reduce risk or seriousness of impact.

Applications:

3. It is helpful to make action plan according to condition or health problem- how, where, when
4. Once condition is identified then the positive effects can be expected. For example, individuals who believe that wearing sunscreen prevents skin cancer are more likely to wear sunscreen than individuals who believe that wearing sunscreen will not prevent the occurrence of skin cancer.
5. It also helpful to find out the how serious is the condition and how it will make impacts of the disease on functioning in work and social roles
6. The comparison of early and delayed diagnosis and its complications considered.

4. Perceived Barriers: It refer to an individual's assessment of the problems related to behavior change. For example, if an individual perceives a health condition as threatening and believes that a particular action will effectively reduce the threat, barriers may prevent engagement in the health-promoting behavior.

Applications:

1. Identify and reduce barriers through reassurance, incentives, and assistance
2. Conduct face – to – face instruction and provide necessary information to avoid barrier.
3. Increase motivation and compliance by giving psychological comfort.

5. Cues to Action: A cue, or trigger, is necessary for prompting engagement in health-promoting behaviors. Cues to action can be internal or external. internal cues include Physiological cues (e.g., pain, symptoms). External cues include events or information from close ones, tmedia, or health care provider.

Applications: All the information about the test including preparation and facilities was provided to subjects in the forms of verbal and written (booklet, cards and reminders).

6. Self-Efficacy: It refers to an individual’s confidence to take action and perform successfully.

Applications: Provide training, guidance, and positive reinforcement to express one’s feeling about the confidence they have in their ability to perform the required test.

Suggestions for Improvement in the application of HBM

The habitual health-related behaviors (e.g., smoking, seatbelt buckling) may become relatively independent of conscious health-related decision making processes. Individuals engage in some health-related behaviors for reasons unrelated to health (e.g., exercising for aesthetic reasons). Environmental factors outside an individual's control may prevent engagement in desired behaviors. For example, an individual living in a dangerous neighborhood may be unable to go for a jog outdoors due to safety concerns. Health belief model does not consider the impact of emotions on health-related behavior. Fear may be a key factor in predicting health-related behaviour, so need to control emotional behaviour

Health Belief Model is a theoretical model which can be used to guide programs related to disease prevention and also to explain and predict health-related behaviors.

Applications of Health Belief Model:

1. The health belief model has been used to develop effective interventions to change health-related behaviors
2. Increase perceived susceptibility to and perceived seriousness of a health condition by providing education about prevalence and incidence of disease, individualized estimates of risk, and information about the consequences of disease (e.g., medical, financial, and social consequences).
3. Alter the cost-benefit analysis of engaging in a health-promoting behavior (i.e., increasing perceived benefits and decreasing perceived barriers) by providing information about the efficacy of various behaviors to reduce risk of disease, identifying common perceived barriers, providing incentives to engage in health-promoting behaviors, and engaging social support or other resources to encourage health-promoting behaviors.
4. Provide cues to action to remind and encourage individuals to engage in health-promoting behaviors
5. Boost self-efficacy by providing training in specific health-promoting behaviors,particularly for complex lifestyle changes (e.g., changing diet or physical activity, adhering to a complicated medication regimen).
6. Engagement at individual level (i.e., working one-on-one with individuals to increase engagement in health-related behaviors) or the societal level (e.g., through legislation, changes to the physical environment.

Health Belief Model is generally based on six basic concepts which are summarised below:

1. Perceived Susceptibility: It refers to one's belief of the chances of getting a condition or subjective assessment of risk of developing a health problem.

Applications:

1. Population at risk and their risk levels was defined. Low, average and high risk population for colorectal cancer was described.
2. Personalized risk based on each person's behaviours and conditions e.g. their age and other personal habits such as eating habits were explored.
3. It provides statistic about colorectal cancer like its prevalence and mortality rate
4. It describes necessity of conducting screening tests to evaluate clinical sign and symptom about disease and also in the absence of any clinical sign or symptoms i. e. importance of screening in health monitoring is necessary.

2. Perceived Severity: It refers to one's belief of how serious a condition and its consequences are and how to reduce risk or seriousness of such impact. It encompasses beliefs about the disease itself (e.g., whether it is life-threatening or may cause disability or pain) as well as broader impacts of the disease on functioning in work and social roles

Applications:

1. It also helpful to find out the how serious is the condition and how it will make impacts of the disease on functioning in work and social roles. For example, an individual may perceive that influenza is not medically serious, but if he or she perceives that there would be serious financial consequences as a result of being absent from work for several days, then he or she may perceive influenza to be a particularly serious condition
2. It is helpful to decide how, where, when and what action to take if someone is associated with serious disease condition.

3. Perceived Benefits: It refer to an assessment of the value or efficacy of engaging in a health-promoting behavior to decrease risk of disease i.e. one’s belief in the efficacy of the advised action to reduce risk or seriousness of impact.

Applications:

3. It is helpful to make action plan according to condition or health problem- how, where, when
4. Once condition is identified then the positive effects can be expected. For example, individuals who believe that wearing sunscreen prevents skin cancer are more likely to wear sunscreen than individuals who believe that wearing sunscreen will not prevent the occurrence of skin cancer.
5. It also helpful to find out the how serious is the condition and how it will make impacts of the disease on functioning in work and social roles
6. The comparison of early and delayed diagnosis and its complications considered.

4. Perceived Barriers: It refer to an individual's assessment of the problems related to behavior change. For example, if an individual perceives a health condition as threatening and believes that a particular action will effectively reduce the threat, barriers may prevent engagement in the health-promoting behavior.

Applications:

1. Identify and reduce barriers through reassurance, incentives, and assistance
2. Conduct face – to – face instruction and provide necessary information to avoid barrier.
3. Increase motivation and compliance by giving psychological comfort.

5. Cues to Action: A cue, or trigger, is necessary for prompting engagement in health-promoting behaviors. Cues to action can be internal or external. internal cues include Physiological cues (e.g., pain, symptoms). External cues include events or information from close ones, tmedia, or health care provider.

Applications: All the information about the test including preparation and facilities was provided to subjects in the forms of verbal and written (booklet, cards and reminders).

6. Self-Efficacy: It refers to an individual’s confidence to take action and perform successfully.

Applications: Provide training, guidance, and positive reinforcement to express one’s feeling about the confidence they have in their ability to perform the required test.

Suggestions for Improvement in the application of HBM

The habitual health-related behaviors (e.g., smoking, seatbelt buckling) may become relatively independent of conscious health-related decision making processes. Individuals engage in some health-related behaviors for reasons unrelated to health (e.g., exercising for aesthetic reasons). Environmental factors outside an individual's control may prevent engagement in desired behaviors. For example, an individual living in a dangerous neighborhood may be unable to go for a jog outdoors due to safety concerns. Health belief model does not consider the impact of emotions on health-related behavior. Fear may be a key factor in predicting health-related behaviour, so need to control emotional behaviour