Question

What is the danger of using an ampicillin resistance gene as part of a bacterial transformation? What could happen if this gene was spread to wild bacterial population? What are four ways the ampicillin resistance genes could be prevented from escaping to the wild. Briefly explain each method of prevention.

Answer 1

ANSWER

The ampicillin resistance gene (ampr) codes for an enzyme (b- lactamase ) that is secreted into the periplasmic space of the bacterium where it catalyses ,,hydrolysis of the b-lactam ring of the ampicillin .thus, the gene product of the ampr gene destroys the antibiotic.

If large numbers of bacteria are resistant to ampicillin ,it will be more difficult and more expensive to trat human bacterial infections.When ampicillin fail to work ,consequences include extra visits to doctors ,hospitalization or extended hospital stays  , a need for more expensive antibiotics to replace the older ineffectiveones, lost workdays and sometimes,death.

PREVENTION

Duration of antibiotic

Antibiotic treatment duration should be based on the infection and other health problems a person may have .For many infection once a person has improved thereis little evidence that stopping tratment causes more resistance.Some therefore feel that stopping early may be reasonable in some cases.

Monitoring and mapping

There are multiple national and international monitoring programs for drug resistant treats, including MRSA,VRSA,ESL,VRE,MRA.Resistance open is an online global map of antimicrobial resistance developed by Healthmap which displays aggregated data on antimicrobial resistance from publicly avilable and user submitted data.The website can display data for a 25-mile radius from a location. Users may submit data from antibiograms for individual hospitals or laboratories. European data is from the EARS-Net (European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Network), part of the ECDC.ResistanceMap is a website by the Center for Disease Dynamics, Economics & Policy and provides data on antimicrobial resistance on a global level.

Limiting antibiotic use

Antibiotic stewardship programmes appear useful in reducing rates of antibiotic resistance.The antibiotic stewardship program will also provide pharmacists with the knowledge to educate patients that antibiotics will not work for a virus

Excessive antibiotic use has become one of the top contributors to the development of antibiotic resistance. Since the beginning of the antibiotic era, antibiotics have been used to treat a wide range of disease. Overuse of antibiotics has become the primary cause of rising levels of antibiotic resistance. The main problem is that doctors are willing to prescribe antibiotics to ill-informed individuals who believe that antibiotics can cure nearly all illnesses, including viral infections like the common cold. In an analysis of drug prescriptions, 36% of individuals with a cold or an upper respiratory infection (both viral in origin) were given prescriptions for antibiotics. These prescriptions accomplished nothing other than increasing the risk of further evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria.

• At the hospital level
• At the farming level
• At the level of GP
• At the individual level

Water, sanitation, hygiene

Infectious disease control through improved water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) infrastructure needs to be included in the antimicrobial resistance (AMR) agenda. The "Interagency Coordination Group on Antimicrobial Resistance" stated in 2018 that "the spread of pathogens through unsafe water results in a high burden of gastrointestinal disease, increasing even further the need for antibiotic treatment."This is particularly a problem in developing countries where the spread of infectious diseases caused by inadequate WASH standards is a major driver of antibiotic demand Growing usage of antibiotics together with persistent infectious disease levels have led to a dangerous cycle in which reliance on antimicrobials increases while the efficacy of drugs diminishes.The proper use of infrastructure for water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) can result in a 47–72 percent decrease of diarrhea cases treated with antibiotics depending on the type of intervention and its effectiveness. A reduction of the diarrhea disease burden through improved infrastructure would result in large decreases in the number of diarrhea cases treated with antibiotics. This was estimated as ranging from 5 million in Brazil to up to 590 million in India by the year 2030. The strong link between increased consumption and resistance indicates that this will directly mitigate the accelerating spread of AMR. Sanitation and water for all by 2030 is Goal Number 6 of the Sustainable Development Goals.

An increase in hand washing compliance by hospital staff results in decreased rates of resistant organisms.

Water supply and sanitation infrastructure in health facilities offer significant co-benefits for combatting AMR, and investment should be increased. There is much room for improvement: WHO and UNICEF estimated in 2015 that globally 38% of health facilities did not have a source of water, nearly 19% had no toilets and 35% had no water and soap or alcohol-based hand rub for handwashing.

• Industrial wastewater treatment
• Management in animal use
• Global action plans and awareness