Assume the ionosphere to be modeled by a plasma region with an electron density that increases with altitude from a low value at the lower boundary toward a value Nmax and decreases again as the altitude gets higher. A plane electromagnetic wave impinges on the lower boundary at an angle ϕi with the normal. Determine the highest frequency of the wave that will be turned back toward the earth. (Hint: Imagine the ionosphere to be stratified into layers of successively decreasing constant permittivities until the layer containing Nmax. The frequency to be determined corresponds to that for an emerging angle of Π/2.)
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