State quantitatively the null hypothesis H0 and the alternative hypothesis Ha for the following situations and describe the type I and type II errors. If these hypotheses were to be tested statistically, comment on whether a one- or two-tailed test would be involved for each case.
*(a) The mean values for Ca determinations by an ion-selective electrode method and by an EDTA titration differ substantially.
(b) Since this sample gave a concentration lower than the 7.03 ppm level certified by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), a systematic error must have occurred.
*(c) Results show that the batch-to-batch variation in the impurity content of Brand × acetonitrile is lower than Brand Y acetonitrile.
(d) The atomic absorption results obtained for Cd are less precise than the electrochemical results.
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