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3. What is one experimental technique used to determine the potential energies of atomic orbitals?

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The most used technique for this is photoelectron spectroscopy. It involves the measurement of kinetic energy of photoelectrons (electrons ejected after energetic radiation incides on the sample) to determine the binding energy, intensity and angular distributions of these electrons and use the information obtained to examine the electronic structure of atoms and molecules. It differs from the conventional methods of spectroscopy in that it detects electrons rather than photons to study electronic structures of a material.

The binding energy (BE) can be calculated as the difference between the energy of the inciding radiation (given by hv, where h is Planck's constant and v is the frequency of the radiation) and the kinetic energy (KE) of the ejected electrons (which is what is detected in this technique):

BE = hν − KE​electrons

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