Question

Summarize each parts(provide a thoughtful, complete (yet concise) overview, Do not include any direct quotes from your text or any other source)

1. One of the earliest ethics codes was the Nuremberg Code—a set of 10 principles written in 1947 in conjunction with the trials of Nazi physicians accused of shockingly cruel research on concentration camp prisoners during World War II. It provided a standard against which to compare the behavior of the men on trial—many of whom were eventually convicted and either imprisoned or sentenced to death. The Nuremberg Code was particularly clear about the importance of carefully weighing risks against benefits and the need for informed consent. The Declaration of Helsinki is a similar ethics code that was created by the World Medical Council in 1964. Among the standards that it added to the Nuremberg Code was that research with human participants should be based on a written protocol—a detailed description of the research—that is reviewed by an independent committee. The Declaration of Helsinki has been revised several times, most recently in 2004. In the United States, concerns about the Tuskegee study and others led to the publication in 1978 of a set of federal guidelines called the Belmont Report. The Belmont Report explicitly recognized the principle of seeking justice, including the importance of conducting research in a way that distributes risks and benefits fairly across different groups at the societal level. It also recognized the importance of respect for persons, which translates to the need for informed consent. Finally, it recognized the principle of beneficence, which underscores the importance of maximizing the benefits of research while minimizing harms to participants and society. The Belmont Report became the basis of a set of laws—the Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects—that apply to research conducted, supported, or regulated by the federal government. An extremely important part of these regulations is that universities, hospitals, and other institutions that receive support from the federal government must establish an institutional review board (IRB)—a committee that is responsible for reviewing research protocols for potential ethical problems. An IRB must consist of at least five people with varying backgrounds, including members of different professions, scientists and nonscientists, men and women, and at least one person not otherwise affiliated with the institution. The IRB helps to make sure that the risks of the proposed research are minimized, the benefits outweigh the risks, the research is carried out in a fair manner, and the informed consent procedure is adequate. The federal regulations also distinguish research that poses three levels of risk. Exempt research includes research on the effectiveness of normal educational activities, the use of standard psychological measures and surveys of a nonsensitive nature that are administered in a way that maintains confidentiality, and research using existing data from public sources. It is called exempt because the regulations do not apply to it. Minimal risk research exposes participants to risks that are no greater than those encountered by healthy people in daily life or during routine physical or psychological examinations. Minimal risk research can receive an expedited review by one member of the IRB or by a separate committee under the authority of the IRB that can only approve minimal risk research. (Many departments of psychology have such separate committees.) Finally, at-risk research poses greater than minimal risk and must be reviewed by the full board of IRB members.

provide a brief summary for the historical review

Answer 1

Nuremberg code is one of the earliest codes which is concerned about the ethical and moral code of conduct. It is the set of 0n principals which was written in 1947. It was formulated in accordance with the cruel researches done on the prisoners of the concentration camps. The Nazi physicians were the one responsible for such cruel researches during World War II. Under the code, many physicians were convicted for putting the men into trials unknowingly which led to their death. The code focused on the consent of the people as to whether they want the researches or experiment to be held on them or not.
The World Medical Council in 1964 came up with yet similar ethical code named the declaration of Helsinki. the formation of a committee was proposed in order to review the research. According to the code, a detailed description of the research should be presented in the written form to the committee and the people respectively. These codes and declaration have been revised many times since there formulation. In 1978, there came up a set of federal guidances which focused primarily on Tuskegee in the United States. This was called the Belmont Report. According to this report, it was proposed that the risk and the benefit would be distributed fairly between the different groups of the society. Also, it focused on the matter of consent and equal respect to the people. It also focuses on maximizing the importance of the research and minimizing the harmful effects simultaneously. The Belmont Report became a base of the formation of the set of laws which is the Federal Policy for the protection of Human Subjects. This gave rise to the formation of an institutional review board IRB) whose function is to regulated, support, and review the research done in the institutions, hospitals and the universities. There are a set of five people whose role is to review the ethical code of conduct about the researches and to minimize the effects accordingly.