Question

wimh he s no ng stcome that cn be sociaed wth chronic stress? A) A strengthened immune system C) Cardiovascular disease B) Hair loss D) Weight gain After you realize the strange noise you heard late at night was your cat and not a burglar, the system stimulated by the stress response will be slowed down by the 34) A) parasympathetic nervous system. C) voluntary nervous system. B) central nervous system. D) sympathetic nervous system. 35) Robbie gets headaches le ss than once a month. They seem to be triggered by stress, anxiety, fatigue, or anger. Based on how often they occur, choose the appropriate category for Robbie's headaches. A) Chronic B) Frequent C) Episodic D) Migraines 36) Stress created by a dependence on technology and the constant state of connection is referred to as A) technodistress. C) technoeustress. B) technostress. D) technoimmunology 37) You are a night person, so you are studying you're your economics final by working at night, when you are at your best. What are other strategies for effective time management? A) Prioritizing tasks C) Doing more than one thing at a time B) Procrastination D) Finding a noisy place to work 38) You are looking for a physical approach to stress management. Which of the following is probably the best advice for you? A) Try to get 30-45 minutes of exercise every day. B) Eat more foods that contain protein and carbohydrates C) Decrease your daily consumption of caffeine. D) Get more sleep by taking regular naps. 39) Your belief or confidence in your skills and ability to perform is known as A) self-efficacy C) self-esteem. B) self-consciousness. D) self-hatred. 40) How you feel about yourself is known as A) self-efficacy. C) self-consciousness B) self-hatred. D) self-esteem.

Answer 1

33. a strengthened immune system.

34.a. parasympathetic nervous system.

35. C. episodic.

36.b. technostress.

37. a. Prioritizing task

38.a. Try to get 35-40 minutes exercise every day.

39.a. Self-efficacy.

40.c. Self-consciousness.

The Health Belief Model

The Health Belief Model (HBM) was developed in the early 1950s by social scientists at the U.S. Public Health Service in order to understand the failure of people to adopt disease prevention strategies or screening tests for the early detection of disease. Later uses of HBM were for patients' responses to symptoms and compliance with medical treatments. The HBM suggests that a person's belief in a personal threat of an illness or disease together with a person's belief in the effectiveness of the recommended health behavior or action will predict the likelihood the person will adopt the behavior.

The HBM derives from psychological and behavioral theory with the foundation that the two components of health-related behavior are 1) the desire to avoid illness, or conversely get well if already ill; and, 2) the belief that a specific health action will prevent, or cure, illness. Ultimately, an individual's course of action often depends on the person's perceptions of the benefits and barriers related to health behavior. There are six constructs of the HBM. The first four constructs were developed as the original tenets of the HBM. The last two were added as research about the HBM evolved.

1. Perceived susceptibility - This refers to a person's subjective perception of the risk of acquiring an illness or disease. There is wide variation in a person's feelings of personal vulnerability to an illness or disease.
2. Perceived severity - This refers to a person's feelings on the seriousness of contracting an illness or disease (or leaving the illness or disease untreated). There is wide variation in a person's feelings of severity, and often a person considers the medical consequences (e.g., death, disability) and social consequences (e.g., family life, social relationships) when evaluating the severity.
3. Perceived benefits - This refers to a person's perception of the effectiveness of various actions available to reduce the threat of illness or disease (or to cure illness or disease). The course of action a person takes in preventing (or curing) illness or disease relies on consideration and evaluation of both perceived susceptibility and perceived benefit, such that the person would accept the recommended health action if it was perceived as beneficial.
4. Perceived barriers - This refers to a person's feelings on the obstacles to performing a recommended health action. There is wide variation in a person's feelings of barriers, or impediments, which lead to a cost/benefit analysis. The person weighs the effectiveness of the actions against the perceptions that it may be expensive, dangerous (e.g., side effects), unpleasant (e.g., painful), time-consuming, or inconvenient.
5. Cue to action - This is the stimulus needed to trigger the decision-making process to accept a recommended health action. These cues can be internal (e.g., chest pains, wheezing, etc.) or external (e.g., advice from others, illness of family member, newspaper article, etc.).
6. Self-efficacy - This refers to the level of a person's confidence in his or her ability to successfully perform a behavior. This construct was added to the model most recently in mid-1980. Self-efficacy is a construct in many behavioral theories as it directly relates to whether a person performs the desired behavior.

Limitations of Health Belief Model

There are several limitations of the HBM which limit its utility in public health. Limitations of the model include the following:

• It does not account for a person's attitudes, beliefs, or other individual determinants that dictate a person's acceptance of a health behavior.
• It does not take into account behaviors that are habitual and thus may inform the decision-making process to accept a recommended action (e.g., smoking).
• It does not take into account behaviors that are performed for non-health related reasons such as social acceptability.
• It does not account for environmental or economic factors that may prohibit or promote the recommended action.
• It assumes that everyone has access to equal amounts of information on the illness or disease.
• It assumes that cues to action are widely prevalent in encouraging people to act and that "health" actions are the main goal in the decision-making process.

The HBM is more descriptive than explanatory, and does not suggest a strategy for changing health-related actions. In preventive health behaviors, early studies showed that perceived susceptibility, benefits, and barriers were consistently associated with the desired health behavior; perceived severity was less often associated with the desired health behavior. The individual constructs are useful, depending on the health outcome of interest, but for the most effective use of the model it should be integrated with other models that account for the environmental context and suggest strategies for change.

The Theory of Planned Behavior

The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) started as the Theory of Reasoned Action in 1980 to predict an individual's intention to engage in a behavior at a specific time and place. The theory was intended to explain all behaviors over which people have the ability to exert self-control. The key component to this model is behavioral intent; behavioral intentions are influenced by the attitude about the likelihood that the behavior will have the expected outcome and the subjective evaluation of the risks and benefits of that outcome.

The TPB has been used successfully to predict and explain a wide range of health behaviors and intentions including smoking, drinking, health services utilization, breastfeeding, and substance use, among others. The TPB states that behavioral achievement depends on both motivation (intention) and ability (behavioral control). It distinguishes between three types of beliefs - behavioral, normative, and control. The TPB is comprised of six constructs that collectively represent a person's actual control over the behavior.

1. Attitudes - This refers to the degree to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the behavior of interest. It entails a consideration of the outcomes of performing the behavior.
2. Behavioral intention - This refers to the motivational factors that influence a given behavior where the stronger the intention to perform the behavior, the more likely the behavior will be performed.
3. Subjective norms - This refers to the belief about whether most people approve or disapprove of the behavior. It relates to a person's beliefs about whether peers and people of importance to the person think he or she should engage in the behavior.
4. Social norms - This refers to the customary codes of behavior in a group or people or larger cultural context. Social norms are considered normative, or standard, in a group of people.
5. Perceived power - This refers to the perceived presence of factors that may facilitate or impede performance of a behavior. Perceived power contributes to a person's perceived behavioral control over each of those factors.
6. Perceived behavioral control - This refers to a person's perception of the ease or difficulty of performing the behavior of interest. Perceived behavioral control varies across situations and actions, which results in a person having varying perceptions of behavioral control depending on the situation. This construct of the theory was added later, and created the shift from the Theory of Reasoned Action to the Theory of Planned Behavior.

Limitations of the Theory of Planned Behavior

There are several limitations of the TPB, which include the following:

• It assumes the person has acquired the opportunities and resources to be successful in performing the desired behavior, regardless of the intention.
• It does not account for other variables that factor into behavioral intention and motivation, such as fear, threat, mood, or past experience.
• While it does consider normative influences, it still does not take into account environmental or economic factors that may influence a person's intention to perform a behavior.
• It assumes that behavior is the result of a linear decision-making process, and does not consider that it can change over time.
• While the added construct of perceived behavioral control was an important addition to the theory, it doesn't say anything about actual control over behavior.
• The time frame between "intent" and "behavioral action" is not addressed by the theory.

The TPB has shown more utility in public health than the Health Belief Model, but it is still limiting in its inability to consider environmental and economic influences. Over the past several years, researchers have used some constructs of the TPB and added other components from behavioral theory to make it a more integrated model. This has been in response to some of the limitations of the TPB in addressing public health problems.

Diffusion of Innovation Theory

Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) Theory, developed by E.M. Rogers in 1962, is one of the oldest social science theories. It originated in communication to explain how, over time, an idea or product gains momentum and diffuses (or spreads) through a specific population or social system. The end result of this diffusion is that people, as part of a social system, adopt a new idea, behavior, or product. Adoption means that a person does something differently than what they had previously (i.e., purchase or use a new product, acquire and perform a new behavior, etc.). The key to adoption is that the person must perceive the idea, behavior, or product as new or innovative. It is through this that diffusion is possible.

Adoption of a new idea, behavior, or product (i.e., "innovation") does not happen simultaneously in a social system; rather it is a process whereby some people are more apt to adopt the innovation than others. Researchers have found that people who adopt an innovation early have different characteristics than people who adopt an innovation later. When promoting an innovation to a target population, it is important to understand the characteristics of the target population that will help or hinder adoption of the innovation. There are five established adopter categories, and while the majority of the general population tends to fall in the middle categories, it is still necessary to understand the characteristics of the target population. When promoting an innovation, there are different strategies used to appeal to the different adopter categories.

1. Innovators - These are people who want to be the first to try the innovation. They are venturesome and interested in new ideas. These people are very willing to take risks, and are often the first to develop new ideas. Very little, if anything, needs to be done to appeal to this population.
2. Early Adopters - These are people who represent opinion leaders. They enjoy leadership roles, and embrace change opportunities. They are already aware of the need to change and so are very comfortable adopting new ideas. Strategies to appeal to this population include how-to manuals and information sheets on implementation. They do not need information to convince them to change.
3. Early Majority - These people are rarely leaders, but they do adopt new ideas before the average person. That said, they typically need to see evidence that the innovation works before they are willing to adopt it. Strategies to appeal to this population include success stories and evidence of the innovation's effectiveness.
4. Late Majority - These people are skeptical of change, and will only adopt an innovation after it has been tried by the majority. Strategies to appeal to this population include information on how many other people have tried the innovation and have adopted it successfully.
5. Laggards - These people are bound by tradition and very conservative. They are very skeptical of change and are the hardest group to bring on board. Strategies to appeal to this population include statistics, fear appeals, and pressure from people in the other adopter groups.

6. 

   2.5% Innovators Early AdoptersEarly MajorityLate Majority Laggards 13.5% 34% 34% 16%

7. The stages by which a person adopts an innovation, and whereby diffusion is accomplished, include awareness of the need for an innovation, decision to adopt (or reject) the innovation, initial use of the innovation to test it, and continued use of the innovation. There are five main factors that influence adoption of an innovation, and each of these factors is at play to a different extent in the five adopter categories.

8. Relative Advantage - The degree to which an innovation is seen as better than the idea, program, or product it replaces.
9. Compatibility - How consistent the innovation is with the values, experiences, and needs of the potential adopters.
10. Complexity - How difficult the innovation is to understand and/or use.
11. Triability - The extent to which the innovation can be tested or experimented with before a commitment to adopt is made.
12. Observability - The extent to which the innovation provides tangible results.

13. Limitations of Diffusion of Innovation Theory

    There are several limitations of Diffusion of Innovation Theory, which include the following:

14. Much of the evidence for this theory, including the adopter categories, did not originate in public health and it was not developed to explicitly apply to adoption of new behaviors or health innovations.
15. It does not foster a participatory approach to adoption of a public health program.
16. It works better with adoption of behaviors rather than cessation or prevention of behaviors.
17. It doesn't take into account an individual's resources or social support to adopt the new behavior (or innovation).

18. This theory has been used successfully in many fields including communication, agriculture, public health, criminal justice, social work, and marketing. In public health, Diffusion of Innovation Theory is used to accelerate the adoption of important public health programs that typically aim to change the behavior of a social system. For example, an intervention to address a public health problem is developed, and the intervention is promoted to people in a social system with the goal of adoption (based on Diffusion of Innovation Theory). The most successful adoption of a public health program results from understanding the target population and the factors influencing their rate of adoption.

The feeling part of psychosocial health is called emotional health and includes emotionalintelligence, an ability to understand and manage your emotions and those of others. Emotional intelligence can be broken up into five main parts: Know your emotions

The four components of psychological health are the mental, emotional, social, and spiritual parts of the mind. Mental psychological health involves thinking and includes values, attitudes, and beliefs a person has. Emotional psychological health involves feelings and includes our emotions and reactions to life. Social psychological health involves interactions, relationships, and ability to use social skills and includes the social bonds (level of intimacy with others) and social support (support we get from others) we have. Spiritual psychological health involves self meaning and purpose in life and includes our self-esteem (self respect), self-efficacy (believing in one’s self), learned helplessness (giving up onsituations because of past failures), and learned optimism (teach one’s self positive thinking). What happy people have in common is P.E.R.M.A. P.E.R.M.A. stands for positive emotions, engagement, (good) relationships, meaning (of life),and achievement (of goals)