Problems are listed in approximate order of difficulty. A single dot (•) indicates straightforward problems involving just one main concept and sometimes requiring no more than substitution of numbers in the appropriate formula. Two dots (••) identify problems that are slightly more challenging and usually involve more than one concept. Three dots (•••) indicate problems that are distinctly more challenging, either because they are intrinsically difficult or involve lengthy calculations. Needless to say, these distinctions are hard to draw and are only approximate.
• What is the total charge of 1 mole of Cl− ions? (The CP ion is a chlorine atom that has acquired one extra electron.) This important quantity is called the faraday; it is easily measured since it is the charge that must pass to release 1 mole of chlorine in electrolysis of NaCl solution (or, more generally, 1 mole of any monovalent ion in electrolysis of an appropriate solution). Once the electron charge was known, knowledge of the faraday let one calculate Avogadro’s number.
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