Ans) Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud’s controversial theory of psychosexual development and modified it as a psychosocial theory. Erikson emphasized that the ego makes positive contributions to development by mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at each stage of development. This mastery helps children grow into successful, contributing members of society. During each of Erikson’s eight stages, there is a psychological conflict that must be successfully overcome in order for a child to develop into a healthy, well-adjusted adult.
Erik Erikson:
Erikson developed his eight stages of psychosocial development
based on Freud’s psychosexual theory.
• Stages Of Psychosocial Development:
- Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are based on (and
expand upon) Freud’s psychosexual theory. Erikson proposed that we
are motivated by the need to achieve competence in certain areas of
our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight
stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late
adulthood. At each stage there is a crisis or task that we need to
resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results
in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to
master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.
Erikson also added to Freud’s stages by discussing the cultural implications of development; certain cultures may need to resolve the stages in different ways based upon their cultural and survival needs.
Trust vs. Mistrust
From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can
be trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child’s basic needs for
survival. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so
caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs
help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see
the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who
do not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety,
fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable.
If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met
appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust
for people in the world.
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they
learn that they can control their actions and act on their
environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences
for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and
clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy
vs. shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This is
the “me do it” stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense
of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes
and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate
for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect
on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on
her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could
lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.
Initiative vs. Guilt
Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are
capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their
world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson,
preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt.By
learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others,
preschool children can master this task. Initiative, a sense of
ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to
explore within limits and then support the child’s choice. These
children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose.
Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative
misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may develop
feelings of guilt.
Industry vs. Inferiority
During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the
task of industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare
themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They either
develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork,
sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior
and inadequate because they feel that they don’t measure up. If
children do not learn to get along with others or have negative
experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might
develop into adolescence and adulthood.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs.
role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is
developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions
such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with my life?” Along
the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which
ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and
attempt to discover their “adult” selves. Adolescents who are
successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are
able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of
problemsand other people’s perspectives. When adolescents are
apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are
pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they
may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion.
They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the
future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role will likely
struggle to “find” themselves as adults.
Intimacy vs. Isolation
People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned
with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have developed a sense of
self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others.
However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young
adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful
relationships with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong
sense of self before we can develop successful intimate
relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in
adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional
isolation.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle
adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle
adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity involves
finding your life’s work and contributing to the development of
others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and
raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin
contributing to the next generation, often through childbirth and
caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and productive
work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not
master this task may experience stagnation and feel as though they
are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way; they may
have little connection with others and little interest in
productivity and self-improvement.
Integrity vs. Despair
From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of
development known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage
is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people in late
adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of
satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their
accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back
on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not
successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted.
They focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have”
been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness,
depression, and despair.
Applying psychosocial theories for nursing students. There is an increasing awareness about the importance of community based placements for nursing students given their work with vulnerable, unwell groups. The placement of students studying nursing has traditionally focused on acute care providing the student with important clinical skills. However, opportunities for students to apply their understanding about the impact psychosocial issues and social determinants of health has outside the acute care sector is also warranted, as it better enables them to be informed about what those influences are on health, illness, recovery and wellness. Furthermore, with the increasing provision of home visiting and community based healthcare services, there is an evolving need for more community based placements with a variety of population groups. Teaching nursing students about the broader population through community based placements with disadvantaged groups increases the students’ confidence in dealing with the variety of people they will encounter in the acute care setting.
- Sychosocial theories, such as those of Bronfenbrenner and Erikson, provide nursing students with a theoretical knowledge of the impact of psychological and social factors on clients’ health and recovery. The psychosocial assessment of a patient is an extremely important part of nursing care, but often under-prioritised in preference to immediate physical care requirements.
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